Jean Berger – the man who identified IgA Nephropathy (By John Feehally)
Although IgA nephropathy is the name most commonly used for the renal
disease we study, many other terms have been used for it over the last
30 years. Most have derived from a description of the features of the
disease found on renal biopsy: for example mesangial IgA disease, IgA
glomerulonephritis, and IgA-IgG nephropathy.
But one title often used in the past for IgA nephropathy stands out:
Berger’s Disease, named after Jean Berger, the French pathologist who
published the first description of IgA nephropathy as we recognise it
today.
At the time Jean Berger made and reported his seminal observations he
was working as a pathologist in Paris at Hôpital Necker, and was also
Professor at the Université René Descartes. In the late 1960’s renal
biopsy was an increasingly used technique for investigating renal
disease and the nephrologists with whom Berger worked at Hôpital Necker
and Hôpital Tenon in Paris were among the leaders in this new wave of
work. A classification of glomerulonephritis had been developed based on
the various pathological appearances seen on specimens taken by renal
biopsy, but in the mid-1960’s it was largely based on the morphology as
seen on light microscopy. The new technique of immunofluorescence
microscopy, undertaken with fresh renal biopsy material to identify the
presence of immunoglobulins and complement components, was still
regarded as an experimental technique. Berger applied the technique to
renal biopsies and recognised that there was a group of patients, not
properly defined before, in whom the dominant finding was the deposition
of IgA in the glomerular mesangium. Electron microscopy showed there
were mesangial electron dense deposits corresponding to the mesangial
IgA. Light microscopy showed mesangial hypercellularity, which was
usually focal and segmental. Interpreting his findings in the light of
clinical information, he realised that typically these were young adults
with low grade proteinuria and microscopic haematuria, and most often
with recurrent episodes of macroscopic haematuria coinciding with upper
respiratory tract infection.
The first public appearance of his
findings was modest: an oral report to the French Société de Néphrologie
in the winter of 1968, followed by the publication in French of a
summary less than one page long (1). This report, now cited time and
again all over the world, was entitled “Les dépôts intercapillaires
d’IgA-IgG”. His co-author was an electron microscopist, Dr Nicole
Hinglais.
At first the importance of Berger’s findings was poorly appreciated
in many circles. A number of influential authorities doubted whether IgA
nephropathy should be accorded the right to be identified as a distinct
pattern of glomerulonephritis. Many of these patients, before Berger’s
description of the immunofluorescence findings of IgA, would have been
classified as having ‘focal nephritis’, a term in wide use at that time
which some were reluctant to discard. [For a description of the
development of the term focal nephritis, please read the adjacent
article by Professor Stewart Cameron]. Rapidly other renal pathologists
identified similar cohorts of patients, and it became clear that IgA
deposition was indeed the commonest finding in patients with diffuse and
focal mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis; IgA nephropathy had
been defined.
Berger followed his original descriptive phrase,
dépôts intercapillaires d’IgA-IgG (1), by using the term ‘nephropathy
with mesangial IgA-IgG deposits’ (2). But this was soon replaced by a
number of other terms, including IgA nephropathy, mesangial IgA disease,
mesangial IgA glomerulonephritis, IgA-IgG nephropathy of which IgA
nephropathy has proved the most enduring. In the early years the
condition was often called Berger’s disease, although this term was
sometimes restricted particularly to those patients who had recurrent
episodes of macroscopic haematuria.
Within a short time, Berger made further seminal observations.
Firstly, he identified that similar mesangial IgA deposits also typified
the glomerulonephritis associated with Henoch-Schönlein purpura (2),
which indeed was morphologically often indistinguishable from IgA
nephropathy. Secondly, he showed that recurrence of mesangial IgA
deposits occurred frequently in kidneys transplanted into patients who
had developed end-stage renal disease due to IgA nephropathy (3).
Thirdly, Berger also published a major description of the secondary form
of IgA nephropathy associated with alcoholic liver disease (4).
With
these observations, Berger established a new understanding of these
common groups of patients with glomerulonephritis, and it soon became
clear that IgA nephropathy was the commonest pattern of
glomerulonephritis found wherever renal biopsy was widely practiced. The
glomerular disease in these patients could now be identified and
classified, and studies of their pathogenesis, clinical course and
treatment could begin to be established.
Since Berger’s observations were so innovative and influential, why
has the term ‘Berger’s disease’ gradually fallen out of use? Chiefly
perhaps because eponymous titles for diseases are becoming less
fashionable. But we should not let future generations of nephrologists
forget the seminal contribution made by Berger, even if his name no
longer identifies the entity he discovered
Berger's Disease Before Berger By J Stewart Cameron
When in 1968 Jean Berger and his colleagues in Paris described
glomerular mesangial deposition of IgA in some nephritides, they did
more than make a novel observation : they introduced a whole new level
of descriptive classification into the study of clinical
glomerulonephritis. This action illustrated only too well the morass of
descriptions and classification of glomerular diseases had fallen into,
which still awaits a full resolution. To understand what "Berger's
disease" might mean and how it evolved, we have to look back a long way.
Classifications of nephritis 1820-1970Since
Richard Bright's universally-known book of 1827, and Gottlieb Gluge's
and Gabriel Valentin's much less well-known pioneering studies of renal
histology ten years later, the clinical manifestations and the
macroscopic and microscopic appearances of nephritic kidneys ("Bright's
disease") had been discussed by many observers. Bright's work was done
just before the new improved apochromatic microscopes were introduced
into clinical practice, following which microscopy of renal tissue – and
urine – became a regular feature of clinical enquiry (although Bright
made one microscopical study in 1839-42 with Joseph Toynbee). The major
advance of Valentin in 1837 was the invention of a double- bladed knife,
which allowed the cutting of "thin" sections of tissue for examination
(unstained) under the microscope.
Thus, ideas about nephritis were
dominated from 1840 onwards by the combination of clinical observation
and the macroscopic and microscopic observation of renal tissue obtained
after the death of the patient. To begin with, tissues were unstained
for microscopy; but the introduction of natural dyes (such as carmine)
in the 1850s, and then synthetic stains from 1860 onwards meant that
renal morphology dominated thinking. There had been an uneasy tension
between this level of description and clinical observation from the
start – very early it was noted that in one clinical setting (say dropsy
and proteinuria) a number of different appearances could be seen in the
kidney. These appearances were initially described in the 1840s and
1850s as either a fatty kidney with normal or nearly normal glomeruli,
or in contrast a form in which the presence of cells and tubular
destruction predominated. Debate about the relationship between these
two forms, and their relationship to scarred granular kidneys, dominated
renal pathology up to and beyond the First World War.
Pathologists naturally felt that their level of description was more
fundamental than clinical classifications, and that the underlying
"diseases" were expressed primarily in morphological terms. Thinking was
- and remained - confused. Pathological terms (such as the notorious
"nephrosis") slipped sideways and came to be used for clinical
syndromes, and vice versa. A further, apparently even more fundamental,
layer of description was introduced when the aetiology of some of the
appearances was teased out: "post- streptococcal nephritis" was the
first, in the 1880s as bacteriology was born and the streptococcus
identified ( "scarlatinal nephritis" had existed since 1740 or earlier).
Then the idea of time came to influence classification: first with
the crude description of "acute" and "chronic" forms. Then came the
"Dauerstadium" of nephritis, described by Volhard and Fahr, as did the
"chronic latent nephritis" of Addis. As ideas of immunology developed,
beginning with Schick's landmark observations on streptococci, and then
the work of von Pirquet on serum sickness in 1900-1910, immunological
terms came into use: thus in the 1960s " (chronic) hypocomplementemic
nephritis" made its appearance and by analogy from studies of
experimental nephritis in animals, different patterns of deposition of
immune reactants such as complement and immunoglobulin [Ig] were seen:
the "lumpy bumpy" and "linear" deposits which Germuth and Dixon
correlated to different routes of immunopathogenesis. Finally from the
1950s onwards terms based on the results of the new effective treatments
treatment such as "corticosteroid-sensitive" and
corticosteroid-resistant" nephritis appeared. About this time also the
advent of renal biopsy showed the plasticity of renal histological
appearances.
The result of all this was great confusion for pathologists, doctors –
and not the least - patients. I have described the process above as
though it was a conscious process of layering. However absolutely the
reverse was true, and in 1968 when Jean Berger and his colleagues
differentiated aggregates visible on fluorescent microscopy by
immunoglobulin class, IgA as opposed to IgG, chaos reigned.
The background to IgA nephropathy: an intersection of pathsTo
place IgA nephropathy (Berger's disease) in context we must go back and
trace the evolution of three layers of description in nephritis, which
overlap as shown in the Venn diagram: the clinical syndrome of recurrent
haematuria, the histological appearance of focal/mesangial nephritis,
and the immunohistochemical appearance of predominant IgA deposition.
The clinic: recurrent or persistent haematuria, macroscopic or microscopic
Not surprisingly, bloody urine was know to the ancients, and is
mentioned several times in the Hippocratic corpus. Its associations with
stones and obstruction was even then well known. Less well known was
that it could originate in the kidney itself, but in the seventeenth and
especially the eighteenth century descriptions of acute post-infectious
(usually post-scarlatinal) dropsy, oliguria and haematuria appeared,
from Storch in 1742 to William Wells in 1808. Only when improved
microscopes with apomorphic lenses allowed microscopy of urine and
tissue to begin in the 1830s did Pierre Rayer in Paris, influenced by
Donné's classes in microscopy, observe urine with Eugène Vigla his
student, and described apparently clear urine which persistently
contained an excess of red cells. Probably the first decisive
observation of bleeding from within the kidney itself was that of
William Bowman in his classic paper of 1842, which included pathological
as well as normal kidneys, and which demonstrated red cells within
tubules – an observation repeated by Henle almost at once, who in
addition correctly divined the origin of urinary casts.
During the latter half of the nineteenth century, urine microscopy
produced data as good as any today, including observations of
acanthocytes in renal bleeding as early as the 1880s. A familial
incidence of persisting haematuria both microscopic and macroscopic, was
noted also about the same time, and led later to recognition of
Alport's syndrome in the 1920s. Like all clinical renal syndromes, renal
haematuria was obviously heterogeneous. About the same time patients
with recurrent attacks of macroscopic haematuria were described, who had
microscopic haematuria between the attacks. Probably the first such
observations were those of E Wagner in 1882 and Nestor Tirard in London
in 1899. However the study of glomerulonephritis was dominated by the
presence and quantity of proteinuria – and the two had been know to
co-exist in the urine at least since Wells in 1808. The presence or
absence of haematuria did not form a major point in debates until after
the First World War, and was not emphasised by Volhard and Fahr. This
was to change in the 1920s when Thomas Addis described quantitative
excretion of formed elements in the urine, including red cells, as a
measure of the activity and/or progression of renal diseases. The "Addis
count" as a surrogate for renal appearances during life was widely
performed until renal biopsy became available 30 years later. Since
recurrent macroscopic haematuria was more common in childhood, a
substantial literature appeared in paediatric journals on this topic
from 1950 to 1970.
Histology: Focal segmental glomerulonephritisVolhard
and Farr mentioned a case which may have been focal and segmental
glomerulonephritis, and they quote a description of Sciedemandl in 1916,
but the first papers to draw wide attention to this appearance were
those of Baehr in the United States in the early 1920s. At first, focal
nephritis was noted in patients with endocarditis, and thus described as
"embolic", a term which although quite erroneous persisted for decades.
Then in 1926 Baehr described 14 young adults without endocarditis but
with recurrent macroscopic haematuria, many of whom did well, some of
whom had focal segmental nephritis. The idea of a focal nephritis
remained contentious however, and was attacked amongst others by Payne
and Illingworth working in children with acute forms of nephritis as
late as 1940. In the papers by Ellis and Wilson from the London hospital
in the 1940s, patients were described who would today be diagnosed
clinically as IgA nephropathy. Despite which Wilson opposed the idea of
focal nephritis when it re-surfaced in renal biopsy specimens a decade
later.
It was not until the advent of renal biopsy in the 1950s that focal
nephritis really came to attention. In 1957 Bates, Jennings and Earle as
part of a study of acute nephritis, noted immediate post-pharyngitic
macroscopic haematuria with proteinuria in 10 young soldiers with normal
serum complement concentrations and normal ASOTs. Biopsies showed red
cells in the tubules and generally mild, often focal segmental
nephritis. However it was the papers two years later of Heptinstall and
Joekes in London which focussed attention indelibly on this group of
patients, demonstrating the variety of appearances associated clinically
with a focal and segmental nephritis; only 3 of their 31 patients in
1960 showed recurrent haematuria as a presentation, many having
Henoch-Schönlein purpura or lupus nephritis. Less attention has been
paid to observations made by John Ross at the London hospital in 1960,
focussing only on patients with long-term relapsing haematuria, and
clearly defining this group of patients as an entity for the first time.
Two papers appeared also describing similar cases in childhood: those
of Bodian and Payne in 1962, and Ayoub and Bob Vernier in 1965. Thus by
the 1960s focal, segmental glomerulonephritis was a recognised sub-group
of proliferative glomerulonephritis. Finally during the late 1950s
electron microscopy was first applied to renal biopsy material, and in
1962 Galle and Jean Berger noted "intercapillary" electron-dense
material, presumed by analogy from animal work to be deposits of
circulating immune complexes, in biopsies showing predominantly
mesangial nephritis.
Immunohistochemistry: IgA deposition within the glomeruliThe
idea of using fluorescent-labelled specific antibodies to detect and
trace proteins appeared in the early 1950s, and by 1956 had been applied
by Mellors and Ortega among others to post-mortem kidney specimens. In
1960 Freedman in Robert Kark's laboratory had attempted successfully to
use the same technology on the tiny fragments obtained by renal biopsy.
Until the mid 1960s, however very few laboratories could undertake this
technique, and the antisera used were often of poor specificity. By 1963
antibodies more or less directed against class-specific epitopes of the
Ig light chains were available commercially, so that IgG IgA and IgM
could be identified separately. However the few laboratories studying
immunofluorescence in biopsies at that time mostly used only anti-IgG
reagents, as this was thought to be the predominant immunoglobulin class
involved in the immunopathogenesis of nephritis. For example, in the
now little-known paper of Bodian from Great Ormond Street Hospital in
1965, biopsies from children with recurrent haematuria were studied
using immunofluorescent techniques for the first time - but only
antisera against whole Ig and IgG were used, and so an opportunity was
surely missed. Then in 1968 two brief papers appeared from Jean Berger
and Nicole Hinglais in Paris, describing predominant IgA mesangial
deposition in some renal biopsies, although they emphasised that it was
usually associated with some IgG. Then and now, there is of course no
real comparative quantification of the different antisera to allow
accurate comparison of the intensity of immunofluorescence, but in these
patients the IgA reagent "outshone" the IgG reagent strongly. IgA
nephropathy was born as a concept. Berger had trained with pathologist
Deborah Doniach in London, where he got the idea of applying fluorescent
techniques to kidney disease as she had to liver problems. At that
time, Berger was working at the Necker Hospital in Paris. It should be
noted also that he and his colleagues had the advantage of a pure
anti-IgA antibody prepared by immunologist Maxime Seligmann, who had
described anti-DNA antibodies for the first time a decade previously.
The three come togetherAs the introduction
implied, when this new concept appeared in 1968 the confusion in ideas
on the classification and pathogenesis of nephritis became even worse.
After Berger and his colleagues published two short notes in French on
the subject in 1968, there appeared a longer paper with illustrations,
which rather unusually for such a subject was published in
Transplantation Proceedings, then a new journal in its first year. In
this paper 55 patients with various forms of glomerular morphology were
described, most focal glomerulonephritis. All 55 had only minor
proteinuria, but every one had microscopic haematuria, of whom 22 had
one or more 'bouts of gross haematuria'. IgA was found also in
Henoch-Schönlein purpura, a result already reported in the same year in
the United States by Urizar, working with Al Michael and Bob Vernier.
IgA was found by Berger also in patients with lupus nephritis, an
observation made previously in the US by Koffler and others in 1969.
The world of nephrology remained a little sceptical for a while,
however. Other papers from Paris emerged from Philippe Druet, and
Liliane Morel-Maroger (who had worked with Berger from 1966) together
with Gabriel Richet, so that for a short while the disease seemed to be
confined to France, and in 1973, Renée Habib, Micheline Lévy and their
colleagues used in print for the first time (so far as I can ascertain)
the term "Berger's disease". As John Feehally remarks in the companion
article, Jean Berger has always remained rather embarrassed about this,
as we know being modest and retiring to the extreme.
Then after a gap, in 1972-3 several papers from outside France
appeared (from Maintz and colleagues in the Netherlands, Clark West and
Peter Burkholder in the USA, and David Davies in London amongst others),
then from Ueda in Japan and Australia from Andrew Woodroffe, and very
quickly the finding of predominant mesangial IgA in haematuric patients
with mesangial or focal nephritis was realised to be common world-wide.
Nevertheless, in all only a dozen or so papers were published on the
subject up to 1975, and only a few dozen during the late 1970s: but
after this interest expanded rapidly, and more than 600 appeared from
1981 to 1988. In part, this may have been the result of
immunofluorescence techniques being far from universally available in
renal histology laboratories even during the early 1970s, workers
needing to fluorosceinate their own antibodies before use.
However by
1975 the salient features of IgA nephropathy were established: a
condition with moderate proliferative glomerular changes, usually
mesangial but often focal or segmental, associated with haematuria often
macroscopic and red cell casts, and by 1974 were known to be associated
with an elevated IgA concentration in the plasma. Evolution was stable
or slow, but renal failure, increasing proteinuria and hypertension did
occur eventually in some patients. When such patients were transplanted,
Berger showed in 1975 that IgA rapidly recurred in the allografted
kidney in about half the recipients, but that not all grafts failed
because of this.
The role of the IgA, or lack of it, in the evolution
of the associated nephritis has been the subject of 30 years' more
debate, which continues today. This and many other topics are the
subjects of study by members of the International IgA Nephropathy
Network. https://www.iigann.com/about-iga-nephropathy/for-professionals/history-of-iga-nephropathy
Merci Magda.
